The Cholula Massacre by Cortes

The Cholula Massacre by Cortes The Cholula massacre was one of the most ruthless actions of conquistador Hernan Cortes in his drive to conquer Mexico. Learn about this historic event. In October of 1519, Spanish conquistadors led by Hernan Cortes assembled the nobles of the Aztec city of Cholula in one of the city courtyards, where Cortes accused them of treachery. Moments later, Cortes ordered his men to attack the mostly unarmed crowd. Outside of town, Cortes Tlaxcalan allies also attacked, as the Cholulans were their traditional enemies. Within hours, thousands of inhabitants of Cholula, including most of the local nobility, were dead in the streets. The Cholula massacre sent a powerful statement to the rest of Mexico, especially the mighty Aztec state and their indecisive leader, Montezuma II. The City of Cholula In 1519, Cholula was one of the most important cities in the Aztec Empire. Located not far from the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, it was clearly within the sphere of Aztec influence. Cholula was home to an estimated 100,000 people and was known for a bustling market and for producing excellent trade goods, including pottery. It was best known as a religious center, however. It was home to the magnificent Temple of Tlaloc, which was the largest pyramid ever built by ancient cultures, bigger even than the ones in Egypt. It was best known, however, as the center of the Cult of Quetzalcoatl. This god had been around in some form since the ancient Olmec civilization, and worship of Quetzalcoatl had peaked during the mighty Toltec civilization, which dominated central Mexico from 900–1150 or so. The Temple of Quetzalcoatl at Cholula was the center of worship for this deity. The Spanish and Tlaxcala The Spanish conquistadors, under ruthless leader Hernan Cortes, had landed near present-day Veracruz in April of 1519. They had proceeded to make their way inland, making alliances with local tribes or defeating them as the situation warranted. As the brutal adventurers made their way inland, Aztec Emperor Montezuma II tried to threaten them or buy them off, but any gifts of gold only increased the Spaniards insatiable thirst for wealth. In September of 1519, the Spanish arrived in the free state of Tlaxcala. The Tlaxcalans had resisted the Aztec Empire for decades and were one of only a handful of places in central Mexico not under Aztec rule. The Tlaxcalans attacked the Spanish but were repeatedly defeated. They then welcomed the Spanish, establishing an alliance they hoped would overthrow their hated adversaries, the Mexica (Aztecs). The Road to Cholula The Spanish rested at Tlaxcala with their new allies and Cortes pondered his next move. The most direct road to Tenochtitlan went through Cholula and emissaries sent by Montezuma urged the Spanish to go through there, but Cortes new Tlaxcalan allies repeatedly warned the Spanish leader that the Cholulans were treacherous and that Montezuma would ambush them somewhere near the city. While still in Tlaxcala, Cortes exchanged messages with the leadership of Cholula, who at first sent some low-level negotiators who were rebuffed by Cortes. They later sent some more important noblemen to confer with the conquistador. After consulting with the Cholulans and his captains, Cortes decided to go through Cholula. Reception in Cholula The Spanish left Tlaxcala on October 12 and arrived in Cholula two days later. The intruders were awed by the magnificent city, with its towering temples, well laid-out streets and bustling market. The Spanish got a lukewarm reception. They were allowed to enter the city (although their escort of fierce Tlaxcalan warriors was forced to remain outside), but after the first two or three days, the locals stopped bringing them any food. Meanwhile, city leaders were reluctant to meet with Cortes. Before long, Cortes began to hear of rumors of treachery. Although the Tlaxcalans were not allowed in the city, he was accompanied by s ome Totonacs from the coast, who were allowed to roam freely. They told him of preparations for war in Cholula: pits dug in the streets and camouflaged, women and children fleeing the area, and more. In addition, two local minor noblemen informed Cortes of a plot to ambush the Spanish once they left the city. Malinche's Report The most damning report of treachery came through Cortes mistress and interpreter, Malinche. Malinche had struck up a friendship with a local woman, the wife of a high-ranking Cholulan soldier. One night, the woman came to see Malinche and told her that she should flee immediately because of the impending attack. The woman suggested that Malinche could marry her son after the Spanish were gone. Malinche agreed to go with her in order to buy time and then turned the old woman over to Cortes. After interrogating her, Cortes was certain of a plot. Cortes' Speech On the morning that the Spanish were supposed to leave (the date is uncertain, but was in late October 1519), Cortes summoned the local leadership to the courtyard in front of the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, using the pretext that he wished to say goodbye to them before he left. With the Cholula leadership assembled, Cortes began to speak, his words translated by Malinche. Bernal Diaz del Castillo, one of Cortes foot soldiers, was in the crowd and recalled the speech many years later: He (Cortes) said: How anxious these traitors are to see us among the ravines so that they can gorge themselves on our flesh. But our lord will prevent it....Cortes then asked the Caciques why they had turned traitors and decided the night before that they would kill us, seeing that we had done them nor harm but had merely warned them against...wickedness and human sacrifice, and the worship of idols...Their hostility was plain to see, and their treachery also, which they could not conceal...He was well aware, he said, that they had many companies of warriors lying in wait for us in some ravines nearby ready to carry out the treacherous attack they had planned... (Diaz del Castillo, 198-199) The Cholula Massacre According the Diaz, the assembled nobles did not deny the accusations  but claimed that they were merely following the wishes of Emperor Montezuma. Cortes responded that the King of Spains laws decreed that treachery must not go unpunished. With that, a musket shot fired: this was the signal the Spanish were waiting for. The heavily armed and armored conquistadors attacked the assembled crowd, mostly unarmed noblemen, priests and other city leaders, firing arquebuses and crossbows and hacking with steel swords. The shocked populace of Cholula trampled one another in their vain efforts to escape. Meanwhile, the Tlaxcalans, traditional enemies of Cholula, rushed into the city from their camp outside of town to attack and pillage. Within a couple of hours, thousands of Cholulans lay dead in the streets. Aftermath of the Cholula Massacre Still incensed, Cortes allowed his savage Tlaxcalan allies to sack the city and haul victims back to Tlaxcala as slaves and sacrifices. The city was in ruins and the temple burned for two days. After a few days, a few surviving Cholulan noblemen returned, and Cortes bade them tell the people that it was safe to come back. Cortes had two messengers from Montezuma with him, and they witnessed the massacre. He sent them back to Montezuma with the message that the lords of Cholula had implicated Montezuma in the attack and that he would be marching on Tenochtitlan as a conqueror. The messengers soon returned with word from Montezuma disavowing any involvement in the attack, which he blamed solely on the Cholulans and some local Aztec leaders. Cholula itself was sacked, providing much gold for the greedy Spanish. They also found some stout wooden cages with prisoners inside who were being fattened up for sacrifice: Cortes ordered them freed. Cholulan leaders who had told Cortes about the plot were rewarded. The Cholula Massacre sent a clear message to Central Mexico: the Spanish were not to be trifled with. It also proved to Aztec vassal states- of which many were unhappy with the arrangement- that the Aztecs could not necessarily protect them. Cortes hand-picked successors to rule Cholula while he was there, thus ensuring that his supply line to the port of Veracruz, which now ran through Cholula and Tlaxcala, would not be endangered. When Cortes finally did leave Cholula in November of 1519, he reached Tenochtitlan without being ambushed. This raises the question of whether or not there had been a treacherous plan in the first place. Some historians question whether Malinche, who translated everything the Cholulans said and who conveniently provided the most damning evidence of a plot, orchestrated it herself. The historical sources seem to agree, however, that there was an abundance of evidence to support the likelihood of a plot. References Castillo, Bernal DiÃŒ az del, Cohen J. M., and Radice B.  The Conquest of New Spain. London: Clays Ltd./Penguin; 1963. Levy, Buddy.  Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King  Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs.  New York: Bantam, 2008. Thomas, Hugh.  The Real Discovery of America: Mexico November 8, 1519. New York: Touchstone, 1993.

An Efficient Solution Essay Example

An Efficient Solution Essay Example An Efficient Solution Essay An Efficient Solution Essay An Efficient Solution Rashaad Taylor 9-23-10 Jochem, Eberhard, K. (2006, August, 23). An efficient solution. Scientific American (September, 2006), 64-67 An Efficient Solution Rashaad Taylor The article â€Å"An Efficient Solution† is about effective ways to conserve energy, how it effects the world and how it effects our lives. Wasting less energy is the quickest, least expensive way to stem carbon emissions. Energy conservation is the important part of energy policies. Energy conservation is an important part of energy policies. To some people, â€Å"energy efficiency† means less comfort. The concept of efficiency means that people get the same service using less energy. The fastest way to reduce carbon emissions is to develop an efficiency strategy. We need more ways to improve efficiency along the energy chain: primary energy such as oil, energy carriers such as electricity and useful energy such as the heat in our ovens. New technologies, replace the present intensive use of energy and aterials. Insulating buildings more effectively, changing the industry process and driving aerodynamic cars would reduce the demand for energy use. Some household appliances conserve energy. A desktop computer generates less heat and is made of recyclable materials. A dishwasher has a booster heater that raises water temperature to the required temperaturefor dish washing, it also uses about a half the water required for manual washing. A convection oven ca n cut energy se by 20% because the heat comes from the bottom and it blows the heat around to cook the food. A typical new refrigerator uses one quarter the energy of a 1974 model. In conclusion, the article â€Å"An Efficient Solution† is about improving the efficiency along the energy chain. Insulating buildings more effectively decreases the demand for energy. Driving aerodynamic cars would reduce the demand for gasoline. We have to find more efficient ways to improve the efficiency of the energy chain.

Ethical Perspectives Cross Cultural Perspectives Essay

Ethical Perspectives Cross Cultural Perspectives - Essay Example This includes handling the customers and the services offered by the workers. Culture, however small and ineffective the fact may look like, determines a lot the success of the company (Alice, 2012). This essay focuses the idea of the culture of Wal-Mart store and how its culture has affected the company. Ethics are the upright wellbeing and undertakings of the company. Ethics and social responsibility, also plays a major role in shaping the general business. The essay also addresses the issue of ethics and social responsibility and what is to be done so as to improve the services of Wal-Mart stores. Wal-Mart operates in several countries outside United States. The road in establishing their stores in other countries have not been that smooth. The main reason behind this is due to the cultural conflict with other countries. Wal-Mart is a company based in the United States and the manner in which they conduct their services and the kind of products sold is mainly determined by homeland cultures. When the company ventures in external markets or other countries, it is faced with cultural conflict where the cultures are conflicting. Customers from other countries view the operations from Wal-Mart as inferior to theirs and hence the company loses market from the customers thus reducing the company’s profits and product management (Alice, 2012). It is as well correct to say that Wal-Mart is aggressive in searching for markets for its products and services. When they tried to venture into the Argentina market, the company did not succeed because of its culture. The people of Arg entina did not embrace their products due to conflicting cultures. Wal-Mart also has a culture of exploiting the middle class and enhances gender inequality. In Germany for example, international employees are paid more than the local employees, a situation that lead to the loss of a lot of workers. The cultural issues within the organization also determine the success

Benefits of Waiting to Go to College after High School Research Paper

Benefits of Waiting to Go to College after High School - Research Paper Example It has been observed that after completing high school education, a student may wait for some time before joining the college for undergraduate studies. This waiting has a number of advantages to the student and the responsible members of the family. Firstly, the college education is increasingly becoming expensive. The tuition fee and other expenses in these institutions are far much higher than the expenses in high school education. After struggling to finance the child’s education right from Kindergarten all the way to the high school, and given the harsh financial climate that currently rocks the globe, it may be cumbersome to have the child proceed to the  college education. If the student proceeds to college with the financial difficulties, then he or she will not receive the quality of education that is desirable. In such difficult situations, it may be asserted that one does not need to attain a college education to become mature or get a good job.The financial const raints will translate into psychological problems to the student who will not be able to concentrate on the studies. The student may not access some learning materials that are useful for the studies but are purchased on the individual basis. Taking some time before joining college then provides an individual with a humble time to have financial preparation for the college expenses. Organs like the US military service provide the high school graduate a good opportunity to work as they pursue the  college education.

Advantages of Computer Essay Example for Free

Advantages of Computer Essay Agriculture is a vital sector of Pakistans economy and accounted for almost 30 percent of GDP annually, according to government estimates. The sector directly supports three-quarters of the countrys population, employs half the labor force, and contributes a large share of foreign exchange earnings. The main agricultural products are cotton, wheat, rice, sugarcane, fruits, and vegetables, in addition to milk, beef, mutton, and eggs. Pakistan depends on one of the worlds largest irrigation systems to support production. The following are the main crops cultivated in Pakistan: Wheat: Wheat is a staple food used in manufacture of baked products. It is grown on Barani lands. Wheat is grown in Punjab, Sindh and some parts of K.P.K for cultivation of wheat. The temperature is favorable from October to May for the production of wheat. It does not need a lot of water. Pakistan is not self sufficient in wheat production and has to import wheat from foreign countries. It accounts for over 70% of gross cereals and over 36% of the country’s acreage is devoted to wheat cultivation. Rice: Rice is a Kharif crop and needs a great deal of water and heat. It is known as â€Å"crop of water†. It is grown in Punjab and Sindh. North-eastern Punjab and Larkana district are main rice growing regions. The Irri, Basmati and desi varieties are grown in Pakistan. Basmati is the most famous variety of rice grown in Pakistan. Its highest acreage is in the north eastern part of Pakistan. Pakistan is the world’s fourteenth largest producer of rice. Pakistan produces about 6 million tons of rice a year. Sugar Cane Sugarcane is included in both Rabi and Kharif Crops. It is an important cash crop of Pakistan. It is a type of long grass perennial in nature. It is the most important and cheapest source of refined sugar. Gur,Alcohol and Desi Shakkar are also prepared from Sugar cane.The left out stalk fibers (bagasse) are used in the paper industries. It is cultivated in the spring season and harvested in November-December. It is mostly cultivated in canal irrigated areas of Punjab, KPK and Sindh provinces. Cotton Cotton also known as the Silver Fiber is the most important cash crop of Pakistan. It is known to have been produced in the Indus plain since 3000 BC. Pakistan, ranks fifth in world cotton production and earns a large amount of foreign exchange from its export. It accounts for approximately one half of the all materials that are made into cloth and provides employment to 2/3rd of industrial labour force Cotton is a Kharif crop and is grown in canal irrigated areas of Punjab and Sindh and also in some parts of Baluchistan and KPK.

The Tragedy of Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare Essay -- Julius Ca

The Tragedy of Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare In The Tragedy of Julius Caesar, by William Shakespeare, the story revolves around the various individuals who would vie for control of the Roman Empire. All of these individuals exhibit various attributes, values, and techniques in order to facilitate this goal, from Cassius’ intelligence, Brutus’ charm and honor, to Antony’s gift to drive a crowd. And although all three desire to become the new strongman leader of Rome, it is Antony who succeeds gaining the most control through his own specific talents, most specifically noted at Caesar’s funeral. At the funeral scene, Antony exhibits several qualities beneficial to a Roman leader, such as oratory and appeasement skills. The dialogue depicted in Act III, scene ii provides a valuable and insightful perspective on how these values were desirable for leadership in the late Roman Republic. One of these important virtues necessary for rule is the ability to move a large crowd with impressive orating skills. This ability is seen particularly by Brutus in his first speech, as he manages to move the Roman crowd from fear at the assassination to disdain of the now late Julius Caesar. As Brutus spoke to the masses, he made sure to cleverly weigh his loyalty to Caesar to his loyalty to Rome, as he claims, â€Å"not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more† (III, ii, 23-24). He even more cleverly sets the crowd with himself and against Caesar as he dares those loyal to Rome to challenge his judgement: â€Å"Who is here so vile that will not love his country? If any, speak, for him have I offended. I pause for a reply† (III, ii, 33-36). Thus, while playing on the crowd’s loyalties and using his love for Rome and... ...and whipping them into a fury. This ability to appease, employed by Octavius later in history to much success, also characterizes the typical Roman strongman as the primary example of an exceptional leader. The capability of moving the public with strong words and to gratify their desires are indeed qualities advantageous to being a leader in ancient Rome. As Antony displays, these abilities can set an individual apart from his counterparts and place the upper hand in favor of the person with most control of the general public. Thus, his control of the crowds lends him the power he needs to turn the tables against Brutus and the conspirators, and he succeeds in gaining control of Roman leadership with his beneficial set of talents, abilities, and virtues. Works Cited Shakespeare, William. Julius Caesar. New York: Folger Shakespeare Library, 1992

Film Sense Shot Essay

The development of formalist film theory was deeply connected with the formation of cinematograph as the autonomous art. The specific character of this theory, hence, should be understood in terms of theoretical and practical elaboration of film production instruments and thorny path of mastering various means for delivering cinematographic ideas and content to spectators. It should be noted that the basic elements of formalist film theory, such as montage, lighting, scoring, shooting etc. became generally accepted technical means in cinematograph, which were used irrespectively of theoretical approaches preached by a given director. However, it should be noted, that notwithstanding universal spread of major theoretical and technical findings of formalist theory, it has its own unique historical features, represented by the work of such notable contributors as S. Eisenstein and R. Arnheim. Generally speaking, formalist film theory may be described as the totality of views, which claim the centrality of technical and formal means of film production to maintaining its inherently artistic and cultural nature. Eisenstein, the pioneer of formalist theory, in his major works Film Form and Film Sense Shot claimed that montage is the central practice to film-making, because it covers its both technical and artistic aspects (Beyond the Shot, p. 13). The utilization of technical approaches to montage and shooting is essentially linked with general objectives of film production, as it is understood in formalist film theory, that is, creating meanings and artistic ideas through copulation/combination of images, shots and sound elements. Basic features and premises of the formalist film theory Formalist film theory is premised on the dialectical understanding of relations between form and content in film production. Technical means, including montage, shooting, lighting, sound are not neutral vis-a-vis artistic content of a given film. In contrast, their collision or sequence, help realize artistic ideas. Based on this theoretical underpinnings Eisenstein developed several approaches to montage, which should be utilized depending on specific goals director pursues. Eisenstein defines five basic approaches to montage such as metric, rhythmic, tonal, overtonal and intellectual (Eisenstein 1949 72-79). All these approaches are premised on the complexity of artistic ideas, which director delivers to spectators. The dialectical relations between shots in these types of montage are based on conflicts between volume, rhythm, scale, speed etc. Metric montage may be described as the control of time sequence of different episodes and images, irrespectively of their intellectual content. These include various formal transitions and interruptions in the visual sequence of shots. Rhythmic montage includes metric elements, but pays specific attention to the visual composition and content of shots, which is made to deliver complex meaning. One of the notable examples of this type of montage, developed by Eisenstein and practiced by his colleagues such L. Kuleshov and D. Vertov, is a famous scene from Eisenstein’s masterpiece Battleship Potemkin, often referred to as ‘Odessa Steps’. This scene portrays the massacre of protesters (including women and children) in Odessa by Imperial Cossack Forces. Metric and rhythmic approaches to montage are extensively used to portray the ugliness and brutality of Tsarist regime and its servants and the sufferings of ordinary people. To achieve this effect, Eisenstein ‘copulates’ shots of soldiers’ boots, marching down the steps with shots of baby carriage with a child in it, moving downstairs. Besides this, Eisenstein uses close images of people, who were killed and massive flight, caused by the gunfire. Temporal metric transitions, hence, are copulated with rhythmic elements, delivering emotional content (Eisenstein 1925). Tonal montage ranks the next stage in complexity of emotional appeal. It uses entire image to create certain emotional effects in spectator. Using specific lighting, sound techniques or special effects, a director creates certain aesthetic atmosphere, which communicates new artistic meanings to visual dimension of the episode. The next type of montage, which Eisenstein calls overtonal, represents combination of tonal, metric and rhythmic elements to produce complex psychological impact on the viewers. The characteristic features of each type of the montage are used in complex to capitalize on the volume, rhythm, scale and speed. And, finally, the most complex type of montage is intellectual montage, which does not only affect feelings, but imbues thinking and reflection. Objectives of formalist film theory Hence, the main objective of formalist film theory, as Eisenstein constantly repeats, is creating artistic effects and meanings, which are communicated to spectators. Eisenstein vividly showed this opportunity, provided by montage, referring to Japanese hieroglyphs, which create new meanings by adding new elements to already existing (Eisenstein, Beyond the Shot 14). Formalist theory’s basic objective may be described as creating conditions for artistic representation of reality in film production. According to Eisenstein and Arnheim, using technical means is not neutral vis-a-vis objective representation of reality. Inability to master technical means results in negative implications for films artistic content and precludes ‘intellectual’ perception of reality. Therefore, formalist film theory, seeks to overcome mere reproduction of reality, peculiar to commercial movie projects. Besides this, representatives of formalist theory hold that spectators should be influenced emotionally and intellectually in order to give them proper understanding of director’s ideas and subjective goals. This goal has its real historical reasons, because the formalist theory developed within a tradition of revolutionary propaganda films, such as Battleship Potemkin and Alexander Nevsky by S. Eisenstein. Arnheim, who is another important representative of the formalist film theory, showed that representation of reality peculiar to cinema, essentially differs from physical contours of reality. Hence, according to Arnheim, formal elements of film-making have great significance for creating emotional and intellectual effects (Arnheim 323). Arnheim gives vivid examples of unique modes of reality perception, generated by films. As he states, film images can not be reduced to physical dimensions. Neither a position of shooting, nor its objects can not be defined mathematically, because they are premised on artistic taste and understanding of reality. Moreover, as Arnheim states, film and visual realities significantly differ in depth, as films are ‘neither absolutely two-dimensional, nor three-dimensional, but something in between†(Arnheim 324) For instance, in Ruttmann’s film Berlin, the director creates interesting juxtaposition of two physical dimensions, depicting trains moving in the opposite directions (Arnheim 324). Tensions and Contradictions within Formalist Film Theory Notwithstanding positive elements, inherent in the formalist film theory, it has certain contradictions and inner tensions, which are often mentioned by the representatives of opposing film theories. For instance, Andre Bazin, one of the most prominent representatives of realist film theory, claimed that formalist understanding of form and technique of film production is manipulative and precludes genuine communication between spectators and artistic subjects (Bazin 48). Besides this, it should be noted that heavy emphasis of formalist film theory on formal and technical means prevents directors from focusing on objective cognition of reality and its representation, making it (reality) a hostage of subjective manipulation with it. However formalist film theory claims that it provides the tools for objective representation of reality, in fact, it is one of the most subjective approaches, even more subjective than auteurship film theory. According to Bazin, formalist film theory breaks world into many small separate pieces, which are then linked to produce structured, but subjective worldview (Bazin 48). Advantages of formalist film theory and its relation to other film theories Formalist film theory has its unique advantages, which are proved by the widespread utilization of its theoretical findings and innovations by film currents, which theoretically contradict its main premises. The importance of montage and other technical procedures was recognized by the majority of directors, who worked after S. Eisenstein. Today, we can not imagine any film, which does not use montage to produce certain artistic affects. Even documentary films, which represent a separate genre, essentially focus on montage. Besides this, deep connections are obvious between formalist film theory and auteur theory, which both put significant emphasis on the role of subjective artistic appeals and aims, which are necessary to maintain cinematograph as a genuine form of art. Both auteur and formalist film theories oppose neutral and quasiobjective film production, which is prone to standardization of techniques and approaches to achieve certain commercial results. In such kind of film production standard genre elements, ideological prejudices and common sense significantly erode the instance of auteurship, transforming films into faceless (without auteur) products of cinema conveyer. It should be noted, however, that formalist film theory is characterized by excessive emphasis on such elements of film production, which often have negative effect on the quality and artistic value. The parasitizing on formal elements and conscious manipulation, as it was noted, is harshly criticized by representatives of realist film theory. It seems that this critique has proper theoretical grounds. Realist film theory, represented by Bazin, calls upon to following the continuity of real images and events and finding artistic meanings in their mere existence. In this view artistic truths should be found in difficult relations between time and space, which entails montage, having subordinate function. Moreover, unlike realist film theory, formalism leaves practically no room for the freedom of interpretation and understanding, aggressively imposing already designed meanings and interpretations on spectators. Such important elements used in realist film theory as deep shot and focus, which help meet its theoretic goals, are ignored in formalist film theory. Failing to master these tools leads to losing visual integrity of reality, which is, according to Bazin, is even more important than montage (Bazin 49). Formalism in Hitchcock’s Spellbound We have already mentioned the use of formalist theory of montage in Eisenstein’s film Battleship Potemkin. However, it should be noted that crucial aspects of formalist film theory may be found in films, directed by people, who are not openly associated with this tradition. This is, for instance, the case with Hitchcock, who based his techniques of film production on Expressionist approach. Hitchcock’s film is based on psychoanalytic and surrealist subjects, which may be proved by its plot and extensive use of Dali’s designs in the Brown’s mysterious dream. One of the major characteristics of Spellbound, which links it with formalist film theory, is that it distorts normal physical perception of time and space in reality. As we remember, Arnheim’s main requirement for film production referred to its creative approach to time and space, designed to break false continuity and present artistic sequence. Hitchcock pays primarily attention to the characterization of different protagonists and objects, but not on their appearances and actions, which is so characteristic of mainstream thrillers. The characters of Constance, false Dr. Edwards, Dr. Murchison are developed in a coherent way, following strict formal structure of plot development. Besides this, Hitchcock utilizes other techniques of formalist film theory, such as fragmentary editing, psychological collision of shots, various lighting effects, and extreme angles. Moreover, Hitchcock uses different approaches to montage, elaborated by Eisenstein. Rhythmic and tonal types of montage are extensively used in scenes, designed to produce strong emotional effects on the spectators. Rhythmic montage is used in the scene depicting Ballantine/Brown/false Edwards phobia of seeing black lines on white things, when these objects are juxtaposed with protagonists’ scared look. Another example includes Constance reading false Edward’s book on the guilt complex and notices that Dr. Edward’s signature differs from that of the man who is the author of the book (real Dr. Edwards). Intellectual type of montage, developed by Eisenstein is evident in surrealist dream scene, when false Dr. Edwards looks at the wall covered with eyes. The same episode includes rhythmic juxtaposition of the close-up shots of Constance and Brown, looking at each other, as well as purely technical tool of shots’ imposition, which creates flexible and vague atmosphere of surrealist dream. Another episode including this type of montage is when Constance, while recollecting Brown’s dream, realizes that the real murderer is Dr. Murchison. In this scene, her recollection of the dream is juxtaposed with her thinking process and eventual discovery. To sum it up, we have analyzed basic characteristics of formalist film theory, its objectives, positive and negative aspects and relation to other film theories. Practical realization of formalist film theory was researched based on the examples of Eisenstein’s Battleship of Potemkin and Hitchcock’s Spellbound. Works Cited Arnheim, Rudolf. Film as Art. University of California Press,1957. Bazin, Andre. What is cinema? Vol. 1 & 2 (Hugh Gray, Trans. , Ed. ). Berkeley, University of California Press, 1967-71. Eisenstein, Sergei, Film Form: Essays in Film Theory, New York, Hartcourt. Trans. Jay Leyda, 1949. Eisenstein, Sergei. dir. Battleship Potemkin, 1925, USSR. Hitchcock, Alfred. dir. Spellbound. 1945, USA, Vanguard Films. Ð °